| Republic of China 中華民國 Chunghwa Minkuo |
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| Puppet regime of Imperial Japan | |||||
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| Motto 和平反共建國 Peace, Anti-Communism, National Construction |
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| Anthem The Song to the Auspicious Cloud |
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| Green: Republic of China-Nanjing in 1939 Light green: Mengjiang (incorporated as region in 1940) |
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| Capital | Nanking | ||||
| Language(s) | Chinese, Japanese | ||||
| Government | Republic | ||||
| President | |||||
| - 1940–1944 | Wang Jingwei | ||||
| - 1944–1945 | Chen Gongbo | ||||
| Vice President | Zhou Fohai | ||||
| Historical era | World War II | ||||
| - Established | 30 March 1940 | ||||
| - Disestablished | 10 August 1945 | ||||
In March 1940 a puppet government led by Wang Jingwei was established in the Republic of China under the protection of the Empire of Japan. The regime officially called itself the Republic of China (中華民國, Zhōnghuá Mínguó) and its government the Reorganized National Government of China.[1] Informally it was known as the Wang Jingwei regime (Chinese: 汪精衛政權; pinyin: Wāng Jīngwèi Zhèngquán), the Nanjing Nationalist Government (Chinese: 南京國民政府; pinyin: Nánjīng Guó Mín Zhèngfǔ), the Republic of China-Nanjing, the Nanjing regime, or New China.
The Reorganized National Government was one of several puppet states of the Japanese during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), and it was meant to rival the legitimacy of the government of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, which was of the same name and based in Chongqing. Wang Jingwei was originally the leftist leader of a Kuomintang (KMT) faction called the Reorganizationists, who had broken away from Chiang Kai-Shek's government in March 1940 and defected to the Japanese invaders.
Claiming to be the rightful government of the Republic of China, it flew the same flag and displayed the same emblem as Chiang Kai-shek's National Government, with an extra pennant demanded by the Japanese. However, it was widely regarded as a puppet state and enjoyed no diplomatic recognition, except from the states of the Anti-Comintern Pact.
The Nanjing Nationalist Government was nominally a reintegration of several entities that Japan had established in northern and central China, including the Reformed Government of the Republic of China of eastern China, the Provisional Government of the Republic of China of northern China, and the Mengjiang government in Inner Mongolia, though in reality northern China and Inner Mongolia stayed relatively free of its influence.
Officially the Reformed State was founded on 30 March 1940 and Wang Jingwei became head of state with Japanese support. It declared war on the Allies on 9 January 1943.
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In theory, the Reformed Government controlled all of China with the exception of Manchukuo, which it recognized as an independent state. In actuality, the Reformed Government controlled only Jiangsu, Anhui, and the north sector of Zhejiang, all being Japanese-controlled territories after 1937.
Therefore, the Reformed Government's actual borders changed as the Japanese gained territory in the war. During the December 1941 Japanese offensive, the Reformed Government extended control over Hunan, Hubei, and parts of Jiangxi province. The port of Shanghai and the towns of Hankou and Wuchang were also under control of the Reformed Government after 1940.
The Japanese-controlled provinces of Shandong and Hebei were theoretically part of this political entity, although were actually administered by the Commander of the Japanese North Front, under a separate Japanese-controlled government based in Beijing. Like the Northern Front, the southern sectors had their own Japanese military commander and government based in Guangzhou. Each front acted as its own military unit with its own political and economic administration as well as its own Japanese military commander.
According to other sources, total extension of territory during 1940 period was 1,264,000 km².
During the war, the Imperial Japanese Army committed numerous atrocities in areas controlled by the Reformed Government, including so-called "mopping up" operations to frighten the populace. General Toshizō Nishio, the Commander-in-Chief of the Imperial Japanese Army's expeditionary forces in mainland China, was subsequently replaced by General Yasuji Okamura. On 9 September 1945, following Japan's defeat in World War II, the Japanese forces in the area surrendered to General He Yingqin of Chiang Kai-shek's National Revolutionary army.
The administrative structure of the Reformed Government included a Legislative Yuan and an Executive Yuan. Both were under the president and head of state Wang Jingwei. Real political power remained with the Commander of the Japanese Army Central Chinese Front and Japanese political entities formed by the Japanese Counsellors. The Japanese also set up various local nationalist parties and movements to support its cause.
After obtaining Japanese approval to establish a national government, Wang Jingwei ordered the Sixth Kuomintang Representative Congress to establish this government in Nanjing. The dedication occurred in the Conference Hall, and both the "blue-sky white-sun red-earth" national flag and the "blue-sky white-sun" Nationalist Party flag were unveiled, flanking a large portrait of Sun Yat-Sen.
On the day the new government was formed, and just before the session of the "Central Political Conference" began, Wang visited Sun's tomb in Nanjing's Purple Mountain in an attempt to establish the legitimacy of his power as Sun's successor. Wang had been a high-level official of the Nationalist government and, as a confidant to Sun, had transcribed Sun's last will, the Zongli's Testament. To discredit the legitimacy of the Chongqing government, Wang adopted Sun's flag in the hope that it would establish him as the rightful successor to Sun and bring the government back to Nanjing.
The Beijing administration (East Yi Anti-Communist Autonomous Administration) was under the commander-in-chief of the Japanese North China Front until the Yellow River area fell inside the sphere of influence of the Central Chinese Front. During this same period the area from middle Zhejiang to Canton was administered by the South Chinese Front. These small, largely independent fiefdoms had local money and local leaders, and frequently squabbled.
These political phenomena were analyzed by the American journalist Jim Tew who worked on the Japanese Advertiser, a Japanese independent newspaper, which was American-owned.
The case of the Nanjing pro-Japanese administration was researched by Chester Holcombe, a young American journalist, who arrived in Shanghai to interview the head of government. This interview was published in the Shanghai newspaper, The China Weekly Review, under the title "The Nanjing Prisoner", much to the annoyance of the Japanese Army and the local civil establishment. Holcombe was blacklisted and threatened with death if he were to return.
Wang Jingwei travelled to Tokyo in 1941 for meetings with his Japanese overseers. In Tokyo the Nanjing Government Minister and Vice president Chou Fo-hai commented to the Asahi Shimbun that the Japanese establishment was making little progress in the Nanjing area. This quote provoked anger from Kumataro Honda, the Japanese Ambassador and Consul in Nanjing. Chou Fo-hai petitioned for total control of China's central provinces by the National Government. In response, Japanese Army Officer Teiichi Suzuki was ordered to provide military guidance to Wang Jingwei's new regime at Nanking, and so became part of the real power that lay behind Wang's throne.
With the permission of the Japanese Army, a common monopolistic economic policy was applied, to the benefit of Japanese zaibatsu and local representatives. Though these companies were supposedly treated the same as local Chinese companies by the Government, the President of the Yuan legislature in Nanjing, Cheng Kung-po, complained that this was untrue to the Kaizo Japanese review. The Nanjing Nationalist Government of the Republic of China also featured its own an Embassy in Yokohama, Japan (as did the puppet-state of Manchukuo).
Local administration:
Foreign representatives and diplomatic personnel:
The local economy was administered primarily for the Japanese Army of the Central Front. Military planners installed an "occupation economy" with wartime money (Japanese Military Yen and native Chinese Yuan), and a Chinese Central Bank with supposedly Chinese entities, but all were administered by Japanese counsellors and the Japanese Army in the area. Chinese under the regime had greater access to coveted war-time luxuries, and the Japanese enjoyed things like matches, rice, tea, coffee, cigars, foods and alcoholic drinks, all of which were scarce in Japan proper. Additional entertainment, such as brothels, casinos and bars, were managed by the Japanese and local functionaries for the military. The purpose of this control was allegedly to impede the monetary depreciation of the yen, so as to maintain the strength of the Japanese currency on the continent.
In the Japanese-occupied territories, the prices of basic necessities rose substantially. In Shanghai of 1941, they increased elevenfold. Similar inflation occurred in Manchukuo, despite heavily-centralized economic control by the Japanese.
Education was similar across all the Japanese occupied territories. The strategy was to create a workforce suited for the factories and mines, and for manual labour. The Japanese also attempted to introduce their culture and dress to the Chinese. Complaints and agitation, as in Manchukuo, were raised and called for more meaningful Chinese educational development. Shinto temples and similar cultural centres were built in order to instill Japanese culture and values. These activities came to a halt at the end of the war.
Daily life was often difficult in the Nanjing Nationalist Government-controlled Republic of China, and grew increasingly so as the war turned against Japan (c.1943). Local residents resorted to the black market in order to obtain needed items or to influence the ruling establishment. The Japanese Kempeitai, Japanese Tokko, collaborationist Chinese police, and Chinese citizens in the service of the Japanese, all worked to censor information, monitored any opposition, and tortured enemies and dissenters. A "native" secret agency, the Tewu, was created with Japanese Army "advisors". The Japanese also established prisoner-of-war detention centres, concentration camps, and Kamikaze training centres to indoctrinate pilots as members of the Navy's Shanghai Kokutai (equipped with Mitsubishi A6M Reisen, Yokosuka K5Y, Nakajima B5Ns and some Seaplanes) as part of Shina Homen Kantai (China Area Fleet) among Army s I/II Chutai of 85th Hiko Sentai and 9st Sentai (equipped with Ki-44 Shoki/Ki-84 Hayate) both units based in Shanghai and Nanjing area.
The Nanjing Government organized a "Bureau of Newspapers Management" under the "Department of Propaganda'" in October 1940. Four press agencies were created in 1941, though all were formally controlled by and censored by the Department of Propaganda.
The population was probably close to the 1937–38 figures of the Interior Affairs Ministry, with no account taken of the outer regions or areas occupied by later advances:
The populations of the major cities were:
Other population estimates are as follows:
Others sources during 1940 reported that the total number of inhabitants rose to 182,000,000.
The Japanese Army organized a local army, supposedly to defend the Nanjing Regime-controlled China. In reality, it served as a second line of offense and internal security as part of the Second Sino-Japanese war. A Collaborationist air force (the "Reformed Government of China Air Force" (1938) renamed the "National Government of China Air Force" in 1940) was created, and provided gliders for training purposes. It was later equipping with:
For the Collaborationist army, Japan provided:
For the Collaborationist navy, the IJN provided some captured warships:
The regime also had a regular police force under Japanese control. The local politicians and media consistently provided pro-Japanese propaganda, praising the "heroic efforts of the Imperial troops", and argued for a "national defence against Communism and Western interests".
Chiang Kai-shek's forces captured numerous members of Wang Ching-wei's army during military engagements. Enemy prisoners of low rank were persuaded to renege and fight alongside anti-Japanese forces, but high-ranking prisoners were executed. Leaders of the military included:
During the conflicts in central China, the Japanese utilized several methods to recruit Chinese volunteers. Japanese sympathisers like Nanjing's pro-Japanese governor, or major local landowners like Tao-liang, were used to recruit local peasants in return for money or food. The Japanese recruited 5,000 volunteers in the Anhui area for the local Nanjing Army. Japanese forces and the Reformed Nanjing Government used slogans like "Drop Your Weapons, and Take the Plow", "Oppose the Communist Bandits" or "Oppose Corrupt Government and Support the Reformed Nanjing Government" to dissuade guerrilla attacks and buttress its support. Other methods included soliciting the cooperation of local bandits, using money, drugs, weapons, or captured goods as enticements. Using this system, they organized anti-guerrilla units, who sometimes collaborated with criminal elements.
The Japanese used various methods for subjugating the local populace. Initially, fear was used to maintain order, but this approach was altered following appraisals by Japanese military ideologists. In 1939, the Japanese army attempted some populist policies, including:
Buddhist leaders inside the occupied Chinese territories ("Shao-Kung") were also forced to give public speeches and persuade people of the virtues of a Chinese alliance with Japan, including advocating the breaking-off of all relations with Western powers and ideas.
In 1938, a manifesto was launched in Shanghai, reminding the populace the Japanese alliance's track-record in maintaining "moral supremacy" as compared to the often fractious nature of the previous Republican control, and also accusing Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek of treason for maintaining the Western alliance.
In support of such efforts, in 1941 Wang Jing-wei proposed the Qingxiang Plan to be applied along the lower course of the Yangtze River. A Qingxiang Plan Committee (Qingxiang Weiyuan-hui) was formed with himself as Chairman, and Zhou Fohai and Chen Gongbo (as first and second vice-chairmen respectively). Li Shiqun was made the Committee's secretary. Beginning in July 1941, Wang maintained that any areas to which the plan was applied would convert into "model areas of peace, anti-communism,and rebuilders of the country" (heping fangong jianguo mofanqu). It was not a success.
Before and during Japanese control of the Reformed Nanjing Republic of China, the farming possibilities were as follows:
Distribution of crops
Distribution of animals
Transport types
Typical products
Distribution of land usage for farming
Distribution of animal husbandry
Transportation distribution
Typical products
For mining resources, see Empire of Japan (natural resources, Asia mainland and Pacific areas, after 1937)
In pre-war Shanghai, many factories developed silk and cotton, and most had been controlled and owned by the Japanese or other foreign investors. A notable installation was the "Shanghai Power Plant" at the heart of the city, with a production capacity of some 200 megawatts. This power plant used coal from northern China. Since 1843 the port of Shanghai had been China's gateway for commerce, and in 1935, it was handling trade with New York, London, San Francisco, Kobe, Liverpool, Los Angeles, Hong-Kong, Hamburg and Rotterdam. Shanghai also had other industries that were crucial to modern Chinese society at that time. Even under Wang Jing-wei's regime it continued to be a major industrial and economic powerhouse.
To complement the efforts of the South Manchurian Railway Company, the Japanese civil establishment and the Imperial Japanese Army, in collaboration with Chinese local businessmen, founded the North China Railway Company. This had branches in Hopei, Shangtung and other Northern Chinese areas in order to link up the north China and central China railways. At about the same time the pro-Japanese government in Nanjing, together with "native" Japanese organisations and the Japanese Central Chinese Army authorities, organized the Central China Railway Company to link up the railways of Ahnwei, Kiangsu, north Chekiang, and areas near to or were held by the Southern Japanese Chinese Army, for economic and strategic reasons. The Japanese also organized a Chinese merchant shipping company and a Commerce Authority Entity for managing commercial traffic around Shanghai.
Japanese authorities reinforced monopolies on production in the occupied territories. Control methods were modelled on guilds, on the Naiga Wata Kabushiki Kaisha (which specialized in managing the Japanese cotton industry), or private zaibatsu such as Mitsubishi.
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